About the journal
The Quarterly of Kheradname-ye Sadra is the first specialized journal of philosophy in Iran. It is published by the Sadra Islamic Philosophy Institute in order to explain and analyze the ideas of Mulla Sadra, in particular, and disseminate Islamic philosophy in general. The first issue of this Journal was published on 21st April 1995 with a scientific-promotional rank. This Journal has provided an appropriate context for introducing the differences between Islamic philosophy and Greek or Western philosophies.
This Quarterly welcomes papers in related fields from all thinkers and interested scholars in the field of Islamic philosophy.
Recent Articles
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Open Access Article
1 - سرمقاله
S. Mohammad KhameneiIssue 3 , Vol. 29 , Spring 2024بهار امسال، برخلاف طبع دلنواز و غمزدای خود، سراسر دلگداز و غمساز بود و جنایتکاران صهیونیسم جهانی، بمرکزیت امریکا و جنایات ضدبشری آنان، فرصت شادی ندادند و این نظام شیطانی هر روز دهها و صدها بیگناه و زن و کودک فلسطینی غزّه را ناجوانمردانه به قتل رساند و دهها خانه و بیمارس Moreبهار امسال، برخلاف طبع دلنواز و غمزدای خود، سراسر دلگداز و غمساز بود و جنایتکاران صهیونیسم جهانی، بمرکزیت امریکا و جنایات ضدبشری آنان، فرصت شادی ندادند و این نظام شیطانی هر روز دهها و صدها بیگناه و زن و کودک فلسطینی غزّه را ناجوانمردانه به قتل رساند و دهها خانه و بیمارستان و مسجد را ویران کرد، تا بجایی که فریاد اعتراض ملّتها را بلند کرده و سراسر جهان ـ حتی امریکا و اروپا ـ دست به راهپیمائیهای باشکوه زده و پیام خود را اعلان کرده‌اند. ملت شریف ایران، پس از انقلاب از این دست جنایات امریکائی بسیار دیده و این ملت حق‌طلب، بارها طعم تلخ آنرا چشیده است؛ شهادت رئیس‌جمهور، سیدابراهیم رئیسی و همراهان او از راه سقوط بالگرد حامل آنان، نیز یکی از جنایات دشمنان غربی بوده است. وقوع این حادثة اخیر سبب شد تا بحکم قانون، رئیس‌جمهور جایگزین انتخاب شود و نامزدها در معرض آراء مردم قرار گیرند که سرانجام آن، انتخاب یکی از نامزدهاست و در دست گرفتن زمام دولت برای ادارة کشور، تا باری از دوش ملت بردارد، یا مثل بیشتر دولتهای منتخب مردم، باری بر آن بیفزاید؛ پدیدة شگفتی که در هر دولت مدعی پیشرفت، دیده شده ولی آرزوی بهبود وضع مردم هنوز بر دلها مانده است. ببهانة این واقعیت مشهود، جا دارد به علت‌العلل این روند فرساینده نظری بیفکنیم. نتیجه آن میشود که این نابسامانی ماندگار در کشور، نه فقط گناه و تقصیر و قصور رؤسای دولتها، بلکه کار همان اکثریت مردم است که به اشخاص ناصالح یا ناتوان رأی داده‌اند و با خوشبینی و با رأی خود، آنها را در آن منصب نشانده‌اند. آری، ملت با قصد خیر و مصلحت خود و جامعه، به یکی از نامزدها رأی میدهند و او را رئیس‌جمهور میکنند، ولی بسبب ناآگاهیهای سیاسی مردم و نشناختن داوطلبان ریاست‌جمهوری و البته نبودن مراکزی هوشمند و آگاه سیاسی که مردم را ارشاد کنند و مردم بیاری آنان و اطمینان به آنها، خوب را از بد تشخیص دهند، افرادی بر سر کار حکومت می‌آیند که یا ناتوان هستند یا حتی برخی، با اهداف دشمنان همراهی میکنند. برای اصلاح این روند ناقص، ضرورت نخستین آن است که انتخابات رؤسای دولتها و حتی نمایندگان مجلس، بشرط رعایت قانون اساسی، بدست اکثریت ناآگاه نیفتد و افراد ملت هوشیارانه با شناخت بیشتر و از طریق دستگاههای نظارتی یا رسانه‌یی و توسعة اختیارات شورای نگهبان، فقط افراد شایسته و توانا انتخاب شوند و افراد ناصالح زمامدار کشور نشوند. Manuscript profile -
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2 - Three Modalities of Being Based on Mullā Ṣadrā’s Three Philosophical Approaches
Ali BabaeiIssue 3 , Vol. 29 , Spring 2024Mullā Ṣadrā’s philosophy has witnessed the rise of three approaches in its process of development: principiality of quiddity, principiality of existence based on graded unity, and principiality of existence based on individual unity. In the light of these three Sadrian MoreMullā Ṣadrā’s philosophy has witnessed the rise of three approaches in its process of development: principiality of quiddity, principiality of existence based on graded unity, and principiality of existence based on individual unity. In the light of these three Sadrian philosophical approaches, the discussion of the ‘three modalities of being’ has undergone some fundamental changes. In conformity to the first approach, the source of division is quiddity, which is divided into ‘necessity, possibility, and impossibility’. At this level, possibility refers to quiddative possibility. In the second approach, the common three modalities are promoted to necessity and possibility. At this level, possibility refers to indigent and ontological possibility. In the third approach, the division evolves into a two-fold division of ‘truth and false’. The concept of truth in this approach shares the same meaning and references with the three other meanings of ‘truth’ in the third approach – priority of the truth, existence of truth, and true union - and bears a ‘paradigm and analogue’ relationship to the truth discussed in the mother of all propositions. In other words, the mother of all propositions is similar to Almighty Truth among all propositions. Almighty Truth is interpreted as the Highest Truth among all existents, and the principle of non-contradiction is interpreted as the truest of all sayings and the truest of all origins. All mentioned ‘truths’ can be propounded based on the principles of Mullā Ṣadrā’s third philosophical approach. Manuscript profile -
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3 - Analyzing the problem of negligence in the rational psychology of the transcendent wisdom of Mulla Sadra
Mehdi ZamaniIssue 3 , Vol. 29 , Spring 2024Neglecting important issues in epistemology, psychology, psychology and ethics. In this article, we will investigate the problem of neglect in the sublime wisdom of Mulla Sadra with a descriptive-analytical method, and the dimensions of this problem according to Mulla S MoreNeglecting important issues in epistemology, psychology, psychology and ethics. In this article, we will investigate the problem of neglect in the sublime wisdom of Mulla Sadra with a descriptive-analytical method, and the dimensions of this problem according to Mulla Sadra's psychology and his view on 1- the powers of the soul, 2- the degrees of the soul, and 3- its excellence. We dig based on the point of view of the powers of the soul, neglect is mainly presented in two meanings: 1) inattention and 2) forgetting. The discussion about these two meanings requires the analysis of Mulla Sadra's point of view regarding the role of attention in perception as well as the mechanism of memory and recall. From the point of view of levels and affairs of the self, neglect mainly has two meanings: 1) lack of existence or absence and 2) lack of coverage or ignorance. The perspective of the stages of the self is more compatible with the special foundations of Sadra's wisdom, such as the formation of existence, essential movement, etc. The third perspective to analyze the problem of neglect is the spiritual path of the soul, where neglect is mainly considered as an obstacle to the path to God and the veil of knowledge and divine encounter. This meaning of negligence includes a range of obstacles to self-improvement, such as negligence, impatience, carelessness, lack of action, indifference to stubbornness, objection and denial. Manuscript profile -
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4 - An Analysis of Man’s Social Development Based on Prophetic Transcendental Philosophy in Mullā Ṣadrā’s Viewpoint
Saleh Hasanzadeh Hossein Kalbasi Ashtari Jamal BabaliyanIssue 3 , Vol. 29 , Spring 2024The present study examines the social development of Man based on the Prophetic Transcendent Philosophy from Mullā Ṣadrā’s perspective following an analytic-descriptive method. The necessity and importance of this discussion lies in the idea that the knowledge of severa MoreThe present study examines the social development of Man based on the Prophetic Transcendent Philosophy from Mullā Ṣadrā’s perspective following an analytic-descriptive method. The necessity and importance of this discussion lies in the idea that the knowledge of several social categories, such as the criteria for cruelty and true happiness, the quality of the interactions between culture and social traditions with social behaviors, individual and social liberties, citizenship rights, etc., depend on explaining the causes, features, and effects of Man’s social development. In relation to the mentioned factors, while investigating the functional concepts of perfection and development, the truth and mentally-positedness of society, and the place of the prophets and their heirs, the reasons behind the development of human species are mentioned based on Mullā Ṣadrā’s theories of the becoming of the rational soul, the graded motion of existence, Man’s connection to the Active Intellect and, following it, intellectual flourishing. In Mullā Ṣadrā’s view, the most important features for the realization of Man’s intellectual perfection include advocating the prophets, becoming similar to God, and imitating Godly behavior. The findings of this study demonstrate that in his sociological discussions, through promoting his Transcendent Philosophy to the Prophetic Transcendent Philosophy, Mullā Ṣadrā introduces the effects of Man’s social development in four categories of creating utopia or the one people, the prophets’ unveiling and displaying intellectual treasures, longing for the Hereafter and avoiding the love of worldly affairs, and establishing the transcendent civilization. Manuscript profile -
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5 - Use of Logic in Discovering the Argument of the Righteous in Mullā Ṣadrā’s Reading of al-Fuṣṣilat Chapter: 53
Ahmad MalekiIssue 3 , Vol. 29 , Spring 2024The argument of the righteous is intended to demonstrate the existence of Almighty Truth without the mediation of creatures. Fārābī propounded this approach, and Ibn Sīnā actualized it through interpreting the argument of ‘possibility and necessity’. Mullā Ṣadrā objecte MoreThe argument of the righteous is intended to demonstrate the existence of Almighty Truth without the mediation of creatures. Fārābī propounded this approach, and Ibn Sīnā actualized it through interpreting the argument of ‘possibility and necessity’. Mullā Ṣadrā objected to its being righteous in Ibn Sīnā’s reading and presented an argument based on the same method. Now, the question is whether this argument, which is the result of the efforts of some distinguished Islamic philosophers, from Fārābī to Mullā Ṣadrā, can be logically inferred from the Holy Qur’ān and, thus, claim that this holy Book expressed this truth many centuries before all of them. Following a descriptive-analytic method and through employing logical principles, this study has discovered and inferred this argument from verse 53 of al-Fuṣṣilat Chapter. Moreover, through explaining the major and minor propositions of the argument, it has revealed how each of them can be inferred from this verse. The findings of this study indicate the rationality of Qur’anic concepts, manifest the inseparability of the Qur’ān and this argument objectively and based on proof, and introduces one aspect of the scientific miracle of this Heavenly Book. Manuscript profile -
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6 - A Critique of Ibn ‘Arabī’s Ideas on the Concept of Manifestation Based on the Qur’ān and Shi’ite Traditions
Fereshteh Samiee Amir Tohidi Mohammad Kazem Rezazadeh JoudiIssue 3 , Vol. 29 , Spring 2024Manifestation (tajallī) is a frequently used concept in Islamic tradition, the interpretation of which has a great influence on ethical, epistemological, and religious beliefs. The background of this term goes back to the Holy Qur’ān and some ḥadīths with Muslim thinker MoreManifestation (tajallī) is a frequently used concept in Islamic tradition, the interpretation of which has a great influence on ethical, epistemological, and religious beliefs. The background of this term goes back to the Holy Qur’ān and some ḥadīths with Muslim thinkers having provided several interpretations for it. Prior to Ibn ‘Arabī, manifestation was, more than anything else, a mystic concept that referred to the quality of the ontological-epistemological closeness of the wayfarer to Almighty Truth through removing veils and revealing the acts, attributes, and essence of God. However, Ibn ‘Arabī’s particular views and interpretation of this term were different from those of others. The present study employs a descriptive-analytic method in order to comparatively investigate the uses of the concept of manifestation in Ibn ‘Arabī’s view and in Islamic verses and traditions to reveal their similarities and differences. The findings of this study demonstrate that Ibn ‘Arabī’s ideas regarding some important discussions such as the definitions of manifestation, similarity, and essence or absolute non-existence; absolute judgment about God’s essence; limited terms; Man’s concepts of God; God’s manifestation in the Hereafter, and manifestation of denial are greatly different from the views in Islamic verses and traditions in relation to the concept of manifestation. Manuscript profile -
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7 - Predication of Truth and the Defective in the Views of Mullā Ṣadrā and some Contemporary Philosophers
Hadi Izanloo Ramin Golmakani Rasool PadashpoorIssue 3 , Vol. 29 , Spring 2024The problem of predication is one of the important discussions in philosophy and logic. Predication means the union of the subject and the predicate. In Mullā Ṣadrā’s view, the criterion for union is limited to existence; therefore, his ideas of the two primary essentia MoreThe problem of predication is one of the important discussions in philosophy and logic. Predication means the union of the subject and the predicate. In Mullā Ṣadrā’s view, the criterion for union is limited to existence; therefore, his ideas of the two primary essential and common technical predications are different from those of others. These two predications were not efficient enough in explaining certain ontological discussions in Mullā Ṣadrā’s philosophical system. In fact, in clarifying the relationship between the real simple and possible things, he had to resort to a kind of predication that was in total conformity to the principles of the Transcendent Philosophy. Hence, he introduced a third kind of predication called the predication of ‘truth and defective, where ‘truth’ is the origin of the appearance of all things and manifestations, and things are the ‘defective manifestations’ of that ‘truth’. In this paper, the authors have examined the features of the predication of truth and defective that distinguish it from other types of predication. Meanwhile, they have tried to respond to some questions as follows: Can the truth and defective predication, which some thinkers view as a subcategory of the common technical predication, be considered a third type of predication? While some philosophers believe that this predication is invalid in relation to the active attributes of God and resort to a fourth kind of predication called the predication of apparent to manifestation, does this predication apply to such divine attributes based on the individual unity of existence? Finally, following a descriptive-analytic method and through explaining the characteristics of the predication of truth and defective, the writers demonstrate that this predication is a third type of predication that also applies to the active attributes of Almighty Truth in the light of the individual unity of existence. Manuscript profile -
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8 - Comparative Study of the Quality of the Soul-Body Relation in Mullā Ṣadrā and E. J. Lowe
Parvin Nickseresht Ghasem Kakaie Mohammadbagher AbbasiIssue 3 , Vol. 29 , Spring 2024One of the fundamental questions in philosophical anthropology pertains to the quality of the relationship between the soul and the body as two separate substances. This question has also been targeted in both Islamic philosophy and the philosophy of the mind. In Islami MoreOne of the fundamental questions in philosophical anthropology pertains to the quality of the relationship between the soul and the body as two separate substances. This question has also been targeted in both Islamic philosophy and the philosophy of the mind. In Islamic philosophy, through propounding the principle of the corporeal origination and spiritual subsistence of the soul, Mullā Ṣadrā has tried to provide a decisive answer to this question. On the other hand, Edward Jonathan Lowe, one of the distinguished authorities in the field of the philosophy of the mind, has tried to resolve this challenge through negating the absolute immateriality of the soul. Following a descriptive-analytic method and through library research, the present study was carried out to investigate and evaluate the views of these two philosophers in order to find out whether they have been successful in solving this problem. The findings of the study indicate that, although it initially appears that both of them have been able to overcome this dilemma through providing similar responses, some deliberation over their approaches reveals that their answers suffer from certain problems that must be resolved. Manuscript profile
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1 - Foreword
Seyyed Mohammad KhameneiIssue 4 , Vol. 22 , Summer 2017 -
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Seyyed Mohammad KhameneiIssue 4 , Vol. 22 , Summer 2017 -
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Seyyed Mohammad KhameneiIssue 3 , Vol. 20 , Spring 2015 -
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4 - Unity of Being, Unity of Intuition, and Speaking of God
Ghasim Kakaie Tayyebeh MasoumiIssue 3 , Vol. 20 , Spring 2015One of the most important discussions in Islamic philosophy, kalam, and gnosis is speaking of God. The “unity of being” and “unity of intuition” have been proposed as two approaches to the quality of the relationship between the wayfaring gnostic servant and God and spe MoreOne of the most important discussions in Islamic philosophy, kalam, and gnosis is speaking of God. The “unity of being” and “unity of intuition” have been proposed as two approaches to the quality of the relationship between the wayfaring gnostic servant and God and speaking of Him. Each of these approaches has some representatives in the tradition of Islamic gnosis and each has specific beliefs regarding gnostic unity. In this paper, through explaining the theories of the unity of being (based on Ibn Arabi’s ideas) and the unity of intuition (based on ‘Ala al-Dawlah Semnani’s views), the writers initially discuss their differences concerning unity. Then they explore the concept of “personal God” as one of the necessities and basic principles of the theory of the unity of intuition as opposed to the Absolute God of the theory of the unity of being. Manuscript profile -
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5 - Evidence on the Presence of the Principiality of Existence in Ibn Sina’s Thoughts in the Viewpoint of the Transcendent Philosophy
Mostafa MomeniIssue 4 , Vol. 22 , Summer 2017The principiality of existence is the basis of the Transcendent Philosophy. Mulla Sadra has demonstrated this principle based on solid arguments and used it as the foundation of his other philosophical principles. Although this issue was not raised in the time of Ibn Si MoreThe principiality of existence is the basis of the Transcendent Philosophy. Mulla Sadra has demonstrated this principle based on solid arguments and used it as the foundation of his other philosophical principles. Although this issue was not raised in the time of Ibn Sina, one could ask if it could be traced in his words. Another related question here is whether any sound evidence demonstrating the existence of this principle could be found in Ibn Sina’s thoughts so that there would remain no excuse for interpreting his philosophy based on the principiality of quiddity. This study is intended to provide a number of strong proofs in favor of the considerable influence of the principiality of existence on Sinan philosophy through resorting to the statements made by Mulla Sadra and Ibn Sina. In order to confirm his intended principiality of existence, Mulla Sadra refers to Ibn Sina’s words. In fact, many of his views reveal his belief in the principiality of existence, and there are some direct references to this point in his works. Here, the author will try to present and explain the proofs testifying to the truth of this claim within the borderlines of the conducted study. Manuscript profile -
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6 - Mulla Sadra’s View of Philosophy
Mansure Rahmani Ahad Faramarz Gharamaleki Faramarz Gharamaleki Ghasim KakaieIssue 4 , Vol. 22 , Summer 2017In the view of some philosophers, philosophy has been reduced to mental wayfaring and conceptual exchanges. In contrast, based on certain practical aspects, some other philosophers consider philosophy to be the same as ontological wayfaring. In Mulla Sadra’s view, philo MoreIn the view of some philosophers, philosophy has been reduced to mental wayfaring and conceptual exchanges. In contrast, based on certain practical aspects, some other philosophers consider philosophy to be the same as ontological wayfaring. In Mulla Sadra’s view, philosophy reflects the process of the perfection of the human soul in an essential and graded sense in the light of ontological wayfaring rather than in a quantitative or qualitative sense. He maintains that the end of philosophy is to become similar to God, and this similarity is realized through attaining all-inclusive knowledge and becoming separate from corporeal things. Assuming the sameness of philosophy and wayfaring results in pluralism in philosophizing, limitless philosophizing, separation of epistemological promotion from ontological promotion, methodological pluralism, and go togetherness of the purification of the soul and philosophy. Based on equating philosophy with wayfaring, Mulla Sadra tries to organize the structure of the Transcendent Philosophy based on the model of the four-fold journeys. Manuscript profile -
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7 - A Study of Suhrawardi’s and Mulla Sadra’s Interpretations of the Ontological Relationship between Quiddity and Existence in Ibn Sina’s Philosophy
سید محمد انتظامIssue 4 , Vol. 22 , Summer 2017Since Farabi’s time, the division of possible beings into quiddity and existence is considered to be the most important difference between them and the Necessary Being. Existence is neither identical with possible essence, nor one of its parts or effects. Accordingly, p MoreSince Farabi’s time, the division of possible beings into quiddity and existence is considered to be the most important difference between them and the Necessary Being. Existence is neither identical with possible essence, nor one of its parts or effects. Accordingly, possible beings consist of essence and existence, which occurs to it. Farabi was the first to propose an idea of the combination of existence and quiddity; an idea which does not clearly discriminate between the subject and the object. Apparently, Ibn Sina expanded the same view; however, there are some traces in his philosophy which can pave the way for moving from external accidence to analytic accidence. Commentators of Ibn Sina have presented different interpretations of his idea of the ontological relationship between existence and quiddity, two of the most important of which are the ones supported by Suhrawardi and Mulla Sadra. In the interpretation favored by Suhrawardi, the relationship between existence and quiddity is similar to any other relationship between accidents and their subjects. However, in Mulla Sadra’s interpretation, the essential difference between existence and other accidents is greatly emphasized. Here, the relationship between existence and quiddity has been promoted from “affirmation of something for something” to the “affirmation of a thing” and, as a result, Suhrawardi’s objections to Ibn Sina are removed. In this paper, after presenting and demonstrating the presuppositions of Ibn Sina’s theory, the author refers to and examines the above-mentioned two interpretations. Manuscript profile -
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8 - The Relationship of Theory and Practice with Moral Habits and Man’s Essential Change in the Transcendent Philosophy
Esma’il S’aadati KhamsehIssue 3 , Vol. 20 , Spring 2015There is an accurate ontological relationship between theoretical and practical wisdom in the Transcendent Philosophy. Based on the principiality of existence and gradation of being, the trans-substantial motion, and the corporeal createdness and spiritual subsistence o MoreThere is an accurate ontological relationship between theoretical and practical wisdom in the Transcendent Philosophy. Based on the principiality of existence and gradation of being, the trans-substantial motion, and the corporeal createdness and spiritual subsistence of the soul, Mulla Sadra explains this relationship and the soulish change which results from it. The mutual influence of the thoughts, acts, intentions, and behaviors of an individual on each other in the course of the trans-substantial motion of the soul form the inner and real form of human beings. At the beginning of their creation, all individuals are from the same species; however, in their innermost and in the Hereafter, because of the domination of various habits over their souls, they turn into angelic, beastly, savage, or devilish human beings. The embodiment of Man’s otherworldly form and Ideal body are also proportionate to their soulish and moral habits. It is because in the Hereafter bodies are the shadows of souls. This is the same inner transformation or moral incarnation which has been mentioned in religious texts. Moreover, the soul’s trans-substantial motion, whether in the angelic path or in the, beastly, savage, or devilish path, is of the types of dressing after dressing. This is because the origin of inner and otherworldly wickedness is also a kind of gradedness in actuality. Therefore, it can be concluded that, based on the principles of Sadrian philosophy, Man’s inner and otherworldly transformation, is not of the type of impossible essential transformation. Manuscript profile -
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9 - A Study of Qunawi’s Philosophical Gnosis
Gholamreza HosseinpourIssue 4 , Vol. 22 , Summer 2017Sadr al-Din Qunawi’s Miftah al-ghayb, as the first book on theoretical gnosis, provided the basis for theoretical or philosophical gnosis. This is because Ibn Arabi, who is known as the father of Islamic theoretical gnosis, did not have enough time for doing so, thus it MoreSadr al-Din Qunawi’s Miftah al-ghayb, as the first book on theoretical gnosis, provided the basis for theoretical or philosophical gnosis. This is because Ibn Arabi, who is known as the father of Islamic theoretical gnosis, did not have enough time for doing so, thus it was Qunawi who accomplished this task. Alongside the Peripatetic and Illuminationist schools of philosophy, Qunawi founded a school that can be called philosophical gnosis. In spite of his pessimistic view of theoretical intellect, Qunawi acknowledged that unveiling and gnostic taste agree with the theoretical intellect at all stages because they find no contradiction in the proofs of this kind of intellect. Nevertheless, he believes that the perception of such proofs is beyond the capabilities of human imagination. Qunawi tried to reconcile gnostics’ principles of unveiling and philosophical theories. In developing many of his views, he benefitted from Ibn Sina’s al-Isharat and, particularly, Khwajah Nasir al-Din Tusi’s commentary on this book. As a result, one can equate the philosophical language used by Qunawi with that used in the Peripatetic philosophy, particularly with the language employed in Ibn Sina’s al-Isharat, which plays a significant role in granting a philosophical nature to Qunawi’s gnosis. Manuscript profile -
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10 - Wisdom; The Lost Commodity of Contemporary Man
Tuba Kermani Habib Karkon KarkonIssue 4 , Vol. 22 , Summer 2017Although the terms “philosophy” and “wisdom” are usually used interchangeably, this paper aims to demonstrate that in Islamic philosophy wisdom has a more elevated meaning than philosophy. Based on the definition of wisdom, it deals with concepts such as knowledge of Go MoreAlthough the terms “philosophy” and “wisdom” are usually used interchangeably, this paper aims to demonstrate that in Islamic philosophy wisdom has a more elevated meaning than philosophy. Based on the definition of wisdom, it deals with concepts such as knowledge of God, assimilation to God, and perfection of the human soul. Thus wisdom bears a close relationship with the behavior of a sage (hakim) and is in conformity with his faith and act. As the life of Muslim sages testifies, unlike a philosopher in the common sense of the word, a hakim’s end is to change into a rational world. Clearly, in the contemporary world, in which most schools of philosophy emphasize skepticism and relativism, one cannot speak of wisdom but can talk about various philosophies. Recent schools of philosophies, more than leading Man towards certainty, keep them far away from it and abandon them in an ocean of doubtful thoughts. Accordingly, wisdom is the lost commodity of all the human beings who seek for certainty. Manuscript profile
